about

This unofficial website of Sociology Pusat Tingkatan Enam Berakas is designed for all students especially sociology students to prepare for the coming AS level. This website is created to meet the school's philsophy that is to expand their knowledge and skills, and to become independent learners so that they may achieve at the highest levels, so this website is a superhighway for students to have the opportunity to gain more imformative and creative facts of sociology besides textbooks. Hopefully, the students may find this as a useful tool of learning sociology. For your information, we also have made this blog in form of website, please visit: http://www.freewebs.com/pteb-sociology

SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

Head: Mr Hugh Mc Camley

Phsycology;
Ms. Aziyah binti Pehin Orang Kaya Maharaja Kerna DP Seri Hj Yaakub
Mr. Haji Mohd Najib bin Haji Mohd Basir

Sociology;
Mr. Muhammad Fadilah bin Haji Madali
Mr. Muhd Noor Hadi bin Haji Md. Nasir

Books we cover;

topic area

1) THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

♥Culture and Identity
♥Socialisation and Social Roles
♥Class Identities
♥Gender Identities

2) THE MASS MEDIA

♥Theories about Mass media
♥Media Stereotypes

3) YOUTH AND SUBCULTURE

♥Theories of subculture
♥Youth and Deviance

4) SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

♥The relationship between theory and methods
♥Primary data collection
♥Secondary data collection
♥Triangulation

THE CREATORS

[ PTEB Sociologist - Mas ]
Hey! I am one of the Jetaime Sociology's.
Sociology is fun and thats why we do
love sociology. Well, this web is created
to give some informations about what is
Sociology all about and topics that we covered
in AS Level.Have Fun!!

[ PTEB Sociologist - Hanisah ]
Hello! Jet'aime Sociology! This website is
for anyone especially Sociology students.
Here you will find interesting informations
about this subject and we have included
some videos and keywords to help you
to understand better. Feel free to visit our
website and please don't hesitate to give
us comments and critics so that we are able
to meet your requirements to give the best we have.

[ PTEB Sociologist - Muna ]
Hi..!! Jetaime sociology...this site is for all the viewers
and... Hopefully, we think this site will be helpful for
any one trying to find out about Sociology. And do
comment and suggest us if you have any problems
with this site... We surely appreciate your concern...
and DON'T GET BORED....

[ PTEB Sociologist - Fizzah ]
Hii ;D First of all, welcome to this site ;) The aim of this site
is to collect more information for those who are interested
in learning sociology and those who are taking AS level this year.
Do leave us some comment and we are ready to hear some
critics from you. Last but not least, ENJOY !

[ PTEB Sociologist → Hani ]
Hello there! Welcome to our sociology website. It is specially
created to all sociology students and those who were interested
in learning sociology. There are few useful tips on how to score
better grade in sociology and we hope that it helps you to improve.
There is also some explanation on topics that you do not understand
and few links to other sociology website which would extend your
knowledge about sociology. So I hope you found this website very
useful and convenient for your reference other than textbooks!
Ok that’s all from me…enjoy~~

[ PTEB Sociologist - Hidayah ]
A mediocre student. I love my sociology but I kind of have a
hard time remembering. but that is sociology. remembering
facts. I chose sociology because I want to have a major in law.
So far, it has made me understand so much in life, making me
look at the world in a better light. And it has been my most
favorite subject (though i barely pass), and i say, it is your loss
for not taking socio=). I made the template for this blog.
yes. im proud=). Last but not least, I would like to pay my
gratitude for the other JetaimeSociology club members.
MAY WE WIN.

Last but not least, we dedicate this website to Mr. Fadilah who has been teaching us since day one, will be having his last class on the 31st. We will miss you. =(

sociological perspective

The sociological perspective is a particular way of approaching a phenomenon common in sociology. It involves maintaining objectivity, not by divesting oneself of values, but by critically evaluating and testing ideas, and accepting what may be surprising or even displeasing based on the evidence. The sociological perspective often assumes that “official” explanations are incomplete or self-serving. It involves a conscious effort to go beyond the obvious and question what is accepted as true or common sense. This is important because common-sense assumptions are usually based on very limited observation. Moreover, the premises on which common-sense assumptions are based are seldom examined. While sociological research might confirm common-sense observation, its broader observation base and theoretical rational provide a stronger basis for conclusions.

The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behaviour of particular individuals and offers insights about the social world that extend far beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities. Essential to the sociological perspective is the sociological imagination. This term, attributed to C. Wright Mills, means “...the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society”; It means going beyond the individual and understanding how structural forces shape individuals and their action. The sociological perspective, as a broad way of approaching phenomena, is different from a sociological paradigm, which is a specific set of assumptions that frame a sociologist's theories and findings.

From and for more information go to;❥Wikipedia

Four main perspective in sociology;
♥Functionalist
♥Marxist
♥Feminist
♥Interactionists

Functionalists

Emile Durkheim

Functionalist says the individual is a product of society. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of the founders of Sociology. In his view, he stated that society is made up of various institutions, each of various functions. The key points of the functionalist perspective is often made in comparison with the organic analogy and the mechanic analogy. So, Durkheim and his followers are known as Functionalists. They looked at how society was structured - structural theory. Functionalists looked at how institutions society work, and how they affect individuals. Here are some examples;

★ The Family - has the function of socializing children.
★ Education - has the function of preparing young children for the adult society.
★ Religion - has the function of uniting society through the shared beliefs

Functionalists believe that structures of society are set up to allow society to run as smoothly as possible.
Durkheim was keen on the idea that individuals internalize the norms and values of society.
Where norms and values become part of our identity, soon involving the community, creating a consensus.

organic analogy

Comparing society to how a biological organism works. In the same way that the skin holds the human body together, so do norms hold the society together.

mechanical analogy

Another way of looking into society, by comparing it to how a mechanism works, such as in a clock, which function together in order to achieve the aim of demonstrating the time. Similarly, when people pul all together in society, they can achieve collectively held goals, improvements in overall standard of living.

marxist

Karl Marx

Marxist says that the individual is a product of the economic forces.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was another founder of Sociology, focusing on the effects of capitalism. He taught that the economic system (infrastructure) of a society determined the beliefs and values of that society (the super structure), dividing the society into two, the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class).

Marxists believe that the most important force in society is class conflict; the exploitation of the proletraits, where workers are employed to produce goods which are sold by their employers at a profit and only bits of the profit ends up in the workers' wages but most are kept by the owners.

Marx also predicted the working class will rebel in the future if they are to notice their unfairness. In order to avoid such revolution, the ruling class injects false consciousness among them, to make sure that the workers accept their lot in life. In other word, Marxist think people are socialised into a culture based on their social class.
They think peoples identity depends on their social class position in the capitalist system.

capitalism

A type of society in which the private ownership of the means of production is the dominant for of providing the means to live.

feminist

Christine de Pizan

Christine de Pizan, a late medieval writer, was possibly the earliest feminist in the western tradition. Feminism is mostly associated by the particular disadvantages, including oppression and exploitation faced by women in the society. Feminists call the exsisting social order patriarchy. Since the late 1960s, feminists have created heightened awareness in respect to gender roles in society. It has raised important issues relating to the masculine and feminine social roles and whether or not to reflect biological differences. There are four distinct types of feminist groups;
★ Liberal feminism.
★ Radical feminism.
★ Marxist/Socialist feminism.
★ Post Modern feminism.

comparing table of activity and beliefs

interactionism

Interactionism (sometimes known as interpretivism) is a generic sociological paradigm that brings under its umbrella a number of subperspectives;
★ Phenomenology
★ Ethnomethodology
★ Symbolic interactionism
★ Social constructionism
Interactionism has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world today. It is a theory based on social interaction, and it was first linked to the work of the German theorist Max Weber.

Max Weber.

It promotes the idea that nothing in society is determined, and that people can break free of a label as individuals. This is sociology on the micro-level. Critics would say that it is merely a mild form of postmodernist theory, however it has in recent times incorporated Marxism and New Right theory[citation needed]. George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social reality, is considered a leader in the development of interactionism.

George Herbert Mead.

Herbert Blumer expanded on Mead's work and coined the term Symbolic interactionism
.

Herbert Blumer

Max Weber

Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. He began his career at the University of Berlin, and later worked at the universities of Freiburg, Heidelberg, and Munich. Weber's major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion and government.His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. In this work, Weber argued that religion was one of the non-exclusive reasons for the different ways the cultures of the Occident and the Orient have developed, and stressed importance of particular characteristics of ascetic Protestantism which led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the West.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern Western political science. His analysis of bureaucracy in his Economy and Society is still central to the modern study of organizations. His most known contributions are often referred to as the 'Weber Thesis'.

Politics as a Vocation.

For more information, go to Wikipedia

George Herbert Mead

Mead, George Herbert (February 27, 1863 – April 26, 1931) was an American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology.

George Herbert Mead

Mead was born February 27, 1863 in South Hadley, Massachusetts. He studied at Oberlin College from 1879–1883 and spent several years as a railroad surveyor prior to his enrollment in Harvard University in 1887. At Harvard, Mead studied with Josiah Royce, a major influence upon his thought, and William James, whose children he tutored. In 1888, Mead moved to Germany to study with psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, from whom he learned the concept of "the gesture", a concept central to his later work. Despite never finishing his dissertation, Mead was able to obtain a post at the University of Michigan in 1891. In 1894 Mead moved, along with John Dewey, to the University of Chicago, where he taught until his death. No detached philosopher, he was active in Chicago's social and political affairs; among his many activities include his work for the City Club of Chicago. Mead died of heart failure, April 26, 1931.

For more information, go toWikipedia

Herbert Blumer

Herbert Blumer was born March 7, 1900 in St. Louis, Missouri. He lived with his cabinet-worker father and his mother who took care of their home. He attended the University of Missouri from 1918 to 1922. After graduation, he secured a teaching position there. In 1925, he moved to the University of Chicago and became a professional football player (with the now defunct Chicago Cardinals) while studying sociology. Chicago Sociologists George Herbert Mead, W. I. Thomas, and Robert Park greatly influenced him. Upon completing the doctorate in 1928, he accepted a teaching position at the University of Chicago. When Mead became ill and had to give up his position as lecturer at the University of Chicago, Blumer took over and continued his work.

For 27 years Blumer was part of the faculty at the University of Chicago. He took leave to serve in the military during World War II and to study as a scholar at various universities. Blumer became the Chair of the new Sociology Department at the University of California, Berkeley in 1952. He acted as secretary-treasurer, and later president, of the American Sociological Association and received the association's award for a Career of Distinguished Scholarship in 1983. He died on April 13, 1987.

For more information, go to Wikipedia

Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology is a sociological discipline which examines the ways in which people make sense of their world, display this understanding to others, and produce the mutually shared social order in which they live. The term was initially coined by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960s.

Harold Garfinkel.

Ethnomethodology is distinct from traditional sociology, and does not seek to compete with it, or provide remedies for any of its practices.

For more info on Ethnomethodology,❥Wikipedia.
For more info on Harold Garfinnkel, ❥Wikipedia.

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism starts from the idea that people interact in terms of symbol, and one of the most important; language. To understand human action, it is necessary to discover the meaning which people use to guide, interpret and make more sense of their own action and those of others.

In "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life", Erving Goffman analyses and the techniques we use in order to influence how others sees us. He calls this the impression management.

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

Erving Goffman.

Information on the book

As social actors, we give more or less continuos performances in that we present an appearance of 'keen student', hardworking and professional lecturer or caring parents. As everyone is engaged in impression management, we become very skilled in interpreting the action of others and at watching for inconsistencies in their performance.

According to W.I. Thomas people act in term of the way they define situations. By understanding the definitions, social actors can understand the response of others.

Social constructionism

Social constructionism and social constructivism are sociological and psychological theories of knowledge that consider how social phenomena develop in particular social contexts. Within constructionist thought, a social construction (social construct) is a concept or practice which may appear to be natural and obvious to those who accept it, but in reality is an invention or artifact of a particular culture or society. Social constructs are generally understood to be the by-products (often unintended or unconscious) of countless human choices rather than laws resulting from divine will or nature. This is not usually taken to imply a radical anti-determinism, however. Social constructionism is usually opposed to essentialism, which defines specific phenomena instead in terms of transhistorical essences independent of conscious beings that determine the categorical structure of reality.Although both social constructionism and social constructivism are concerned with ways social phenomena develop, they are distinct. Social constructionism refers to the development of phenomena relative to social contexts while social constructivism refers to an individual's making meaning of knowledge relative to social context. For this reason, social constructionism is typically described as a sociological construct whereas social constructivism is typically described as a psychological construct. Social constructivism has been studied by many educational psychologists, who are concerned with its implications for teaching and learning. For more on the psychological dimensions of social constructivism, see the work of A. Sullivan Palinscar

A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the creation of their perceived social reality. It involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, and made into tradition by humans. Socially constructed reality is seen as an ongoing, dynamic process; reality is reproduced by people acting on their interpretations and their knowledge of it.

Constructionism became prominent in the U.S. with Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann's 1966 book, The Social Construction of Reality. Berger and Luckmann argue that all knowledge, including the most basic, taken-for-granted common sense knowledge of everyday reality, is derived from and maintained by social interactions. When people interact, they do so with the understanding that their respective perceptions of reality are related, and as they act upon this understanding their common knowledge of reality becomes reinforced. Since this common sense knowledge is negotiated by people, human typifications, significations and institutions come to be presented as part of an objective reality. It is in this sense that it can be said that reality is socially constructed. The specific mechanisms underlying Berger and Luckmann's notion of social construction are discussed further in social construction.

For more info, ❥Wikipedia.

socialization

The term socialization is used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it. For the individual it provides the resources necessary for acting and participating within their society. For the society, inducting all individual members into its moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols is the ‘means by which social and cultural continuity are attained’ (Clausen 1968: 5).

Sociologists may distinguish six kinds of socialization:
★ Reverse socialization.
★ Developmental socialization.
★ Primary socialization.
★ Secondary socialization
★ Anticipatory socialization
★ Resocialization

Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior. (Henslin, 2006)
★ Media.
★ Age.
★ Gender.
★ Workplace.
★ Ethnicity.

Developmental socialization

Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills.

Primary socialization

Primary socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother not expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behaviour isn't acceptable and could continue to not have this opinion about minority groups.

Secondary socialization

Secondary socialization refers to process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new environment or society.

Anticipatory socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113). Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military.

Media

The mass media is one of the most powerful influences in modern society because it is a part of all our lives. Think of the newspaper that people read everyday, television, magazine and the internet. These are different types of media. Let's see how the ideology and theory influence the media.

★Traditional Marxist's View
★Neo-Marxist's View
★Prularist's view
★Post-Modernist's view

Finally we are going to find out more on Media Stereotypes..

Sociologists view on Mass Media

Traditional Marxists say:

Media serves the economic power of ruling class. The media present what is important and relevant to the ruling class such that stocks and share prices are featured on national news bulletins but only small percentage of the population have a lot of shares. The poor are ignored by the media because they do not have money to buy the things that capitalism sells.

Neo-Marxists say:

The ruling class indirectly control media content. The ideas and values of the ruling class are spread by the mass media, and presented as if they are the most natural, obvious, common sense things to assume and believe.

Pluralists say:

The content of the media reflects the values of society since society is made up of lots of different and interacting parts and the state oversees them to keep them in check. The media will express some opinions more than others which is certainly not because of bias from journalist, editors etc, instead it is only a reflection of the most common views in society.

Post-Modernists say:

Consumption is more important than class identity. People's identity comes from what they buy and what kind of culture and media they choose to consume.

Subcultures forms over time, caused my heavy dramatization from the media.

Stereotypes

Well, first and foremost, stereotypes are generalisations about social groups and this is often seen as inaccurate and derogatory. Nowadays we have see so many media stereotypes that proved to be influential in representing social groups. For example:-

1) Women in the media are often presented in a way to appeal to man - as attractive, well-groomed and sexy.
2) Drama roles for working class characters are mostly limited to soap operas.
3) Roles for ethnic minorities are often stereotyped and limited such as slave and 'native'.

common stereotype;

In today's society, perception of gender is an increasingly important topic. Stereotypes of gender roles are seen all over throughout society in today's world. These gender roles are described as characteristic and behavioral norms connected with masculinity and femininity. Many of these stereotype are created and reinforced by mass media targeted at children. No organization has done as much to perpetuate stereotypes than the Disney company. Disney influences the public with its amusement parks, radio stations and network television. Many social critics have questioned whether Disney really promotes true family values. It is interesting to see what messages Disney is sending out to the young viewers of their movies.

Subcultures

First of all, we need to understand the meaning of culture. It is a way of life of a whole social groups or society. So what culture are you belong to? Have you been thinking about the word 'subculture'? Soon we are going to find out what is the relationship between youth and subculture.

Subculture is a culture within a culture. It is an identifiable group whose members share values and behaviour patterns which are different from mainstream norms, to be precise. Subculture is always associated with the youth and sociologists believe that young people form lots of subculture. Youth culture is different because it opposes mainstream society. It rejects the norms and values passed on by previous generations.

Here are some studies about subculture:

1) Tony Jefferson (1976)- 1950s Teddy Boys.
He reckoned the Teddy Boys wore clothes that they felt would give them higher status.

More

2) Phil Cohen (1972)- Skinheads.
He thought skinhead style was a reaction to the decline of working class communities.

More

3) Dick Hebdige (1979)- Punk.
Punk was a form of resistance to the dominant cultural values of British society in the late 1970s. He believed that Punk was a rejection of available identities. Instead of accepting the patterns of behaviour, dress and future that were expected by society, Punks chose a different path. They dressed and acted in a way that told the world they wouldn't conform.

More

4) Angela Mc Robbie and Jenny Garber (1976)- Girls subculture
They found out that girls accept social control but still have private space.

WHAT DID SOCIOLOGISTS SAY ABOUT SUBCULTURE?

A functionalist, Talcott Parsons (1956) say:

Youth Subcultures are like rites of passage in modern society, acting as a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Belonging to a subculture is a tempoarry experience in a person's life.

Marxists say:

Subcultures are caused by class conflict.

Feminists say:

Sociology as a whole is male-dominated and subcultures have been of particular interest to male researchers.

A post-modernist, Paul Willis (1990):

There are now wide range of 'style and taste cultures' so young people have lots of different ways to define their identity for any single youth subculture to dominate society. Moreover, young people don't want to join uniformed subcultures like Teddy Boys or Punks any more. Instead, they have a much more individualistic approach.

Example of subculture;

Socialization by Age

Resocialization is a sociological concept dealing with the process of mentally and emotionally "re-training" a person so that he or she can operate in an environment other than that which he or she is accustomed to. Resocialization into a total institution involves a complete change of personality. Key examples include the process of resocializing new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers (or, in other words, as members of a cohesive unit) and the reverse process, in which those who have become accustomed to such roles return to society after military discharge.

Age transition of stars are closely magnified by the press. observe the changes;

Main article,Resocialization
.

methodology

Sociologists have 3 aims when collecting and using data;
★ They try to make their research valid and reliable. Research is valid when it examines the true picture, and it is reliable when other sociologists using the same methods get the same data
★ You cant research the whole population. You have to take a sample. Sociologists try to make sure that their sample represents the population - it needs similar proportions of different ages, gender, class and ethnic group.
★ Sociologists aim is to avoid bias.

Sociologist get data from different sources.
★ Primary sources of data
★ Secondary data

Data can either be quantitative or qualitative

Primary sources of data

Involves first hand data - like, interviews, focus groups, questionnaires or observations.

For example;

Secondary data

Includes official statistics.

qualitative data

Usually in numbers and statistics. We can put quantitative data into a graph or a chart.

quantitative

Involves first hand data - like, interviews, focus groups, questionnaires or observations. Quantitative methods are favoured by sociologists who wish to take a scientific approach. They involve the systematic collection of data, and the results are usually expressed in a numerical way.

Examples of quantitative methods;
★ Questionnaires
★ Statistics
★ Social Survey
★ Longitudinal study

Questionnaires

These are lists of pre-set questions used to measure attitudes, opinions and behaviour. They can be issued face to face or distributed by post to a large number of widely dispersed people. Eg: National survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles, 1992.

Uses:
★They can be pre-coded and standardized allowing easy analysis and use for comparative research.
★They are easier than interviews to replicate later, which makes them more scientific.
★Subjects may prefer to answer questions in private.

Limitations:
★They are artificial and do not record real behaviour.
★Subjects may give expected answers or even lie.
★Questions can be worded to produce the desired results.
★The researcher can’t be certain who completes them if it is done in private.
★They are artificial situations so produce invalid data.

Longitudinal study

A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time - often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span. The reason for this is that unlike cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Longitudinal studies are also used in medicine to uncover predictors of certain diseases. Because longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments. But because of the repeated observation at the individual level, they have more power than cross-sectional observational studies, by virtue of being able to exclude time-invariant unobserved individual differences, and by virtue of observing the temporal order of events. Longitudinal studies allow social scientists to distinguish short from long-term phenomena, such as poverty. If the poverty rate is 10% at a point in time, this may mean that 10% of the population are always poor, or that the whole population experiences poverty for 10% of the time. It is not possible to conclude which of these possibilities is the case using one-off cross-sectional studies. Types of longitudinal studies include cohort studies and panel studies. Cohort studies sample a cohort, defined as a group experiencing some event (typically birth) in a selected time period, and studying them at intervals through time. Panel studies sample a cross-section, and survey it at (usually regular) intervals. A retrospective study is a longitudinal study that looks back in time. For instance a researcher may look up the medical records of previous years to look for a trend.

study tips

Sociology is new for you and you must use evidence and sociological terms in doing your essays NOT commonsense. You must aware of some facts about sociology and sociological thought.
First, Sociology, like many other sciences, uses a number of "jargon" words to express complex and specific meanings. In sociology, unlike most other sciences, many of the jargon words and phrases are similar to words and phrases used in every day life. You must always be alert for words used in their specific and scientific meaning rather than their every day meaning. If you fail to take care, you may read entire chapters and think that you understand what is being said, but actually be far afield.

A second point to be aware of is the fact that sociology concentrates on the creation and use of "concepts". Concepts are abstract ideas about society that may be linked together with other ideas to form even more complex ideas or theories. One method that may help you in understanding and using sociological concepts is the interrogative combinations technique. Using this technique, you take two or more concepts and combine them to form a question. You might, for example, take the concept "class" and the concept "power" and combine them in a question:

"What is the relationship between 'class' and 'power'?"

After doing the appropriate reading you should be able to reply,

"Individuals and groups in the upper classes have more power".

Similarly, you could ask, what is the relation between class and race? Study should reveal that the lower classes are disproportionately composed of racial minorities. The interrogative combinations technique is an excellent review method because it takes sociological concepts out of isolation and allows them to be used in combinations to help in understanding what happens in the social world.

Here are some study tips for you to improve your grades especially in sociology;
★ The SQ3R method
★ Essay Writing Skill **Sir Fadhil's**
★ Test Taking Tips
★★★Best tip ever is to consult your lecturer for whatever topic you don't understand

SQ3R

The SQ3R method is relatively easy to learn and something you can start on immediately. It is an acronym for the steps involved in the process: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. Here's how it goes.

1. SURVEY: Don't jump in blindly and start reading. How do you know where you are going if you don't look ahead. Instead, look through the chapter and read the headings and subheadings. Try to pick out no more than two or three major points that will be developed. For example, a chapter dealing with the economy could be broken down into sections on "historical economic systems," "modern economic systems," and "work in the United States." This breaks the chapter down into several smaller units and makes it more manageable. Some texts have final summary paragraphs which make the organization of major concepts easier. This step should take only a few minutes but will greatly help you organize what you are reading.

2. QUESTION: Now you can get down to work. Turn the first heading into a question. This will help to define the reason for your reading as well as helping to recall information that you already possess. For example, the heading "Preindustrial Economic Structures" might become "What are preindustrial economic structures and how do they function?" Although this is a fairly simple operation, it must be done consciously, and carefully.

3. READ: Read the section following the heading to find the answer to your question. You should not read ploddingly along, attempting to memorize everything in the section, but read specifically to answer your question. This is often difficult when interesting examples present themselves, or other information distracts you.

4. RECITE: After you have read the section, look up from the book and try to recite the answer to your question. Try to use your own words and choose an example that will help to clarify the answer. At this point you may want to jot down key phrases or words in the margin of your book or on a note pad. Try to limit this to a word or two for each section.

5. REVIEW: When you have finished the lesson, you need to take a few minutes immediately to review. This will help you to get an overview of the chapter you have just read. You should look at the chapter headings and cover the text and notes. Attempt to recall the points under the major headings and try to recall the answers to the questions that you asked in step 2.

Additional Comments on SQ3R

SURVEY: Do not spend much time surveying material. This is intended only to give you an overview of the lesson and put what you are about to read into perspective. It should take no more than a minute or two. You may want to practice surveying some magazines or various textbooks, trying to determine what the chapter or article will cover, and make guesses as to what the material will actually say. Check to see if you were right.

QUESTION: Most freshman and sophomore texts have headings and subheadings which are well displayed. As you get into more sophisticated books, however, this will not be true. In this case, the SQ3R method is still usable. Since the first sentence of a paragraph is usually an introductory sentence, you should be able to turn it into a question. For example, "All societies must deal with the problems of producing and distributing goods" might beome, "how do societies deal with problems of producing and distributing goods?"

READ: Be sure to read to answer your question. It is much more difficult than it sounds, since many interesting examples and ideas present themselves.

RECITE: You may either mentally review the material or write it down. While writing is usually more effective, it is time consuming. If you choose to mentally review the material, you must force yourself to work through the details and not settle for a vague feeling of knowledge.

REVIEW: Before you get up to make yourself a sandwich, you need to spend another five minutes to review the lesson. You may be tempted to skip this step all together, but it will return much more than the few minutes that you invest.

NOTE ON NOTE: Taking proper notes takes practice. Following these simple rules will help. First, do not take any notes until you have read the entire section. Second, you should limit note taking to one or two key words or a short phrase. Third, jot down notes from memory. Never copy sentences or phrases from the book. Taking lengthy notes or copying verbatim sentences is usually counterproductive since it interrupts the train of thought and encourages rote memorization. Finally, do not use a highlighter. Besides being distracting, they encourage non-selective highlighting, and create confusion in the review process.

Essay Writing Skill

It should include;

★Introduction.
★Comments on the question.
★State or list what issues you are going to present in your essays.
★Use some of the words from the question.
★Content.

Basics:

★You should not write less than three sides/pages for your essay assignments.
★There should be two or three paragraphs on each page that you write.
★You should have more than two sociological perspectives in your essay. Four is recommended to get the best result.
★Follow the instructions stated in the question i.e. start your essay by presenting arguements for the question followed by arguements against the question. Provide criticisms for each theory that you use.
★Provide plenty of evidence: References - name and date of the study/its publications/author.
★Link and relate your ideas together.

Each paragraph:

★ Must contain references
★ Include sociological terms
★ Include examples
★ Must show how the ideas presented in the paragraph
★ Contain three sentences or more

Conclusion

★Give a short summary on the ideas that you have presented.
★Comment on the need to consider different perspectives: BE NEUTRAL
★★Think outside the box!!!

test taking tips

Even students who study well and are well versed in the material sometimes do poorly on tests. The following tips may help to feel more confident when test time comes;

1. Don't cram for tests. Study in short intervals of 50 or 60 minutes each. You will learn more that way and be able to retain it longer.

2. Arrive well organized, ready, and sufficiently early for the test. Rushing to class can often produce anxiety which will prevent good test performance.

3. Read, or listen carefully to the instructions. Although you think you know what is going on, you may lose points by failure to answer all required questions in the manner requested. If you don't understand, ask.

4. Quickly scan the test to get some idea of the make-up and time you will need for completion. Plan a time schedule for completing the various sections of the exam and stick to it.

5. When answering multiple choice questions, read the question and try to think the answer out in your head, then look for it among the options. If you don't see it, then read each answer as if it were a true-false test, and choose the one that is true.

6. Go through the test quickly, answering only those questions that you are sure of. Mark those that you don't know and come back to them. This strategy will help you in several ways. First, it will ensure that you answer all the questions that you know before time runs out. Second, it helps to relieve test anxiety. Third, it gives you exposure to information that may be useful in answering other questions.

7. After you have completed all the questions that you know, return to the unanswered ones. On multiple choice questions, use the process of elimination. Eliminate answers that you know are incorrect. If you still cannot answer it, come back to it on the third pass through.

8. Be sure to answer all the questions. If you are unsure, guess. By narrowing the possibilities you improve your chances of guessing the correct answer.

9. Read all the choices. Even if the first answer looks right, the last choice might be "all of the above."

10. In the case of an essay test, calculate the time you will spend answering each question on the basis of its relative value. Outlining your answer on scratch paper first will save time and will keep you on track.

11. Don't be disturbed by lapses of memory. Often, if you move on to other questions, the answer will come back to you.

12. Don't be disturbed by other students leaving. There is NO correlation between time taken to finish tests and scores received. Often those who leave early have given up and guessed at most of the answers.

exam questions from 2001-2001

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2001

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. 'The choices made by social actions are limited by the sources available to them.' Explain and asses this view. [25]
2. Social definitions and expectations play a major part in shaping gender identities. Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. Discuss the advantages and limitations of social surveys in sociological research. [25]
4. Asses the factor that influence the sociologist's choice of research methods. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. Asses the usefulness of the concept of an underclass in understanding social divisions in modern industrialised societies. [25]
6. 'Power in modern societies no longer derives from the ownership of capital.Discuss[25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2002

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective
1. Describe and asses sociological theories of how power is distributed in modern industrial societies. [25]
2. 'Human behaviour is shaped mainly by social forces.' Describe and asses the evidence that sociologists use to support this claim. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. 'Sociological research based on participant observations often lack objectivity.' Explain and discuss. [25]
4. Using examples, asses the strength and limitations of postal questionnaires as a method of sociological research. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. Asses different sociological explainations of the causes of poverty. [25]
6. 'Women's role in the family prevents them achieving equality with men in employment.' Explain and discuss. [25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2003

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. 'Sociological Research can and shpuld be based on the methods of the natural sciences.' Discuss. [25]
2. Outline and asses the functionalist view that social order is based on concensus and shared values. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. The sociologists theoritical perspectives is the main factor influencing his or her own choice of research method. Discuss. [25]
4. Compare the advantage and limitations of the different types of interview methods used by sociologists. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. Social classes are distinguished today more by differences in lifestyle than by differences in income and wealth. Discuss. [25]
6. Identify & account for the pattern of ethnic inequality in a society of your choice. [25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2004

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. Describe and asses the evidence of that socialisation plays a major part in shaping human behaviour. [25]
2. In modern, affluent societies individuals are free to choose their own social identities. Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. 'Sociologist should try to be objective in their research, but they find this difficult to achieve.' Explain and asses this view.
4. Asses the strength and limitations of the different types of interview that may be used in sociological research. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. 'Poverty is a stigma that prevents poor people from moving up the social ladder. Discuss. [25]
6. Asses sociological explainations of why women continue to experience inequality in employment in modern industrial societies. [25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2005

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. Greater certainly can be achieved in sociological research by using the methods favoured by positivist. Explain and asses this view. [25]
2. 'As individuals we have little control over the social forces that shaped our lives.' Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. Asses the strength and limitations of the dofferent types of interview used in sociological research. [25]
4. 'The choice of research method is influenced mainly by the sociologist's theorical perspective.' Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. 'Class divisions are breaking down in modern societies.' Explain and asses this view. [25]
6. 'Ownership of poverty is still the min source of economic and political power in modern societies.' Explain and asses this view. [25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2006

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. It is inaccurate to view socialisation as a one way process in which individuals are slotted into socially useful roles without only resistance and difficulty. Explain and asses this claim. [25]
2. 'With recent changes in the social position of women, feminist theory no longer has any relevance for understanding modern societies. Asses this view. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. 'Some sources of secondary data are more useful than others when carrying out sociological research.' Explain and asses this claim. [25]
4. 'Whatever research method is used, it is likely that the researcher will influence the outcome of the study. Explain and asses this claim. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. 'Poverty is a way of life for the poor that is passed down from generation through the family. Explain and asses this view. [25]
6. Marxist theory is of little use in understanding social class division today. Explain and asses this view. [25]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2007

SECTION A : The Sociological Perspective

1. To what extent can the existence of social order can be explained in terms of the functionalist concept of value consensus. [25]
2. 'The social identities associated with childhood vary historically and are influenced by factors such as social class and culture. Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION B : Sociological Methods

3. 'The data collected by sociologist questionnaires is very limited by comparisons with the insight generated by participant observation studies.' Explain and asses this view. [25]
4. 'With the exception of official statistics most forms of secondary data are too subjective to be useful in sociological research. Explain and asses this view. [25]

SECTION C : Social Differentiation and Stratification

5. Weber's view of stratification overcomes many of the limitations with Marx's theory of social class. Explain and asses this view. [25]
6. With improved educational opportunities for females, sexual inequality has now largely disappeared in modern industrial societies. Explain and asses this view. [25]